Educatiional Media full notes

Module 1

•          Description of key terms: media, technology, educational technology, types of educational media & educational technology.

•          Historical development and educational technology in classroom today.

Medium (pl. Media) - means through which information is shared among people participating in any form of interaction. It can be verbal, non-verbal, written and/or online conversations. Examples of media are such as language, newspaper, radio, television, magazine, internet, drums, horns, bells, computers, filers, just to mention a few.

Educational media- any means used to share information between teacher and a learner. Types may be audio, visual and audio visual.

Other commonly used terms to educational media include the following:

Audio/visual (A/V)-materials that can produce sound/picture when projected on a screen (audible and visible)
Learning aids- resources designed to assist individual learners or trainees in learning and understanding process. Eg. Operating manuals. Here the Lerner is guided to follow precise directions for performing a given educational task

Training (instructional) materials-set of materials designed to direct the learner how to proceed with a unit or course of study. They relate directly to instructional materials such s handouts, fliers, video clips, etc

Learning resources- anything around that can facilitate effective learning. Eg. Books, specimens, handout, electronic materials, etc

Technology- The application of scientific knowledge to achieve practical purposes

Technology can also be defined as both a process and a product:-

•          As a process, it refers to creative application of knowledge for purposeful activities.

•          As a product, it refers to application of equipment’s S  which facilitate the application of this knowledge.

From this perspective, technology can be perceived as a multipurpose phenomenon, having several fields with which it is identified:

•          Instructional technology-systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the process of teaching based on human and communication. It employs the combination of human and non human resources to bring about more effective instructions for efficient and effective learning.

•          Industrial technology- scientific knowledge used in industrial processes to improve industrial production.

•          Information technology- process of gathering, storing, processing and disseminating of information of whatever quality.

•          Educational technology-general set of instruments and methods or techniques through which solution to educational problems can be found.

From definitions of various scholars and institutions of educational technology, there are three aspects embraced in the concept of educational technology:-

•          Use of equipments or devices in support of teaching and learning.

•          Creation of efficiency and effectiveness as a result of supported learning and improved educational system.

•          The application of knowledge and skills through various techniques.

From educational technology, we have two terms which are:-

•          Technology of education-refers to design and evaluation of systems of teaching and learning or the psychology of learning and communication theories. It is the systematic application of scientific principles on the process of teaching and learning. They involve:-

•          Identification of objectives or (what the students should learn)

•          The design of appropriate learning experience or ( how the students will learn)

•          Evaluation of effectiveness in practice (how well the students will learn)

•          The improvement of the design of the next lesson

•          Technology in education- refers to the integration(ushirikiano) of technology on the process of teaching and learning to achieve the instructional objective. Therefore, it refers to more complex range of audio visual equipment/materials increasingly integrated into the classroom teaching and learning situations.

Categorization of educational technologies

•          Tutorial technologies

•          Designed to teach in lecture like or workbook like where the system controls the materials printed to the students.

•          It is very much applicable to distance education

•          Such materials include Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI), instructional television program, cassette or computer training programmes, some video disks

•          Students have no chance to control the system

•          Exploratory technologies

•          These are technologies where by students are free to roam around the information displayed or presented in medium such as CD-ROM, encyclopedia or virtual libraries.

•          Exploratory applications promote discovery or guided discovery that help students acquire information, knowledge or learn facts, concepts and procedures.

•          Unlike tutorial technologies that act on students, these allow students to control learning

•          A good example is when a science student spends hours in laboratory using laboratory equipments finding out solutions to scientific problem.

•          Application technologies

•          These are technologies that provide tools to facilitate educational process.

•          For example, in the computer context, these include, these include internet surfing , word processors software, database management programs, spreadsheet soft ware that are used in writing tasks, analysis of data, graphing software, desktop publishing, video recording and editing equipments

•          Communication technologies

•          These are technologies that allow the learner and facilitator to send and receive instructions or messages and information to and from one another through networks or other technologies

•          For example, communicating with your fellow student/learner or lecturer through email or fax or internet.

Types of educational media

There are two major categories of media

•          Traditional media

•          Modern media

Traditional media

These are all ancient mean locally produced and used by our fore fathers to communicate information in the process of teaching and learning in classroom. Examples are such as drums, language, signs, songs, dances, pictures, paints, models and simple machines. They are in fact the base for recent development to modern media.

Modern media

These are more recent media that appear to be new or modern in a society. They are either locally made or imported. They may include electronic technology or equipment such as computer, photocopy, video camera, television receiver and video deck, etc

It is argued that modern media are only a convenience of traditional media. Telephones for example are a convenience of traditional drums sounded to communicate information

Other scholar such as Schramm (1966) categorizes media into two categories:-

•          Big media

•          Little media

According to him, big media refer to complex media which are expensive and difficult to operate. On the other hand, little media refers to simple to operate and inexpensive media. Examples are books, fliers, handouts, models, specimens, etc.

Others categorize media into printed and non-printed. Non-printed are further divided into projected and non-projected

Historical development of educational media and technology

Historically, the development of educational media and technology traces back to early 1900’s

Reasons to use educational media

The rapid expansion of education worldwide, more content diversity, more students in the classroom necessitated the need for teaching/learning arrangements and materials to meet these diversified needs.

Thus, according to Koda 1990, educational media and technology can be divided into four phases:-

•          The introduction of technology of education in teaching and learning process. That’s teaching through gymnastics, drama, role play, etc introduced by Plato in Athens

•          Introduction of hardware in education (1920-1955). According to skinner (1968), during this period, educationists began to design and use hardware in classroom. Eg. Machine designed by Sydney press in 1926 was used in classroom in 1954 at the University of Pittsburgh. This was due to large number of students in classroom.

•          Introduction of software.  This phase was marked by the by the introduction of software to support the use of hardware in period between 1955-1967

•          Introduction of modern media. The pressure for the need for the expansion of education brought about this phase worldwide

In Tanzania context

In Tanzania, the use of education media can be traced back to the colonial era when the British government established teacher education.

-in teachers’ colleges, students were taught how to improvise teaching and learning aids for effective teaching and learning process.

The role of education media and technology in education

•          One of the main roles of education technology is that of responding to challenges facing education such as the use of equity and quality of education

•          To face the inadequacy of resources especially in less developed countries

•          To increase the ability to use all our five senses in education process.

Module 2

Communication-a process by which people create and share information with one another to reach a common understanding.

Communication theories- statements or prepositions of facts which serves to explain the general principles of human interactions. They explain whys and hows of communication. They attempt to describe and explain as well as predicting the behaviours that take place in communication

Properties of communication

There are four properties

•          Communication has structure. This structure can be shared or developed in two levels:

•          One way structure-linear mode (source-message-media-receiver)

•          Two way structure-multiple structure. Here the receiver responds to the source (source-message-media- receiver-feedback)

•          Communication is dynamic. It is a process of relation of parts that may influence each other

•          There are factors that account for communication to occur. E.g status of the sender and receiver and level of knowledge between the two.

•          Communication uses common language or signals and sometimes physical or abstract medium

 

According to Makyikeli (2003), scholars have come up with some views or beliefs which eventually brought about communication theories. These beliefs or views or perspectives are as follows:

•          Behaviour perspectives

•          Transitional perspectives

•          Interactive perspectives

Behaviour perspectives

This belief is held by behaviorists’ school of thought which stresses on stimulus-response (S-R). The school of thought believes that, the behavioural change is direct result of the response from a stimulus. That is, communication involves stimulus (message), originating from one source and response coming from the other source.

Transitional perspectives

This perspective views communication as the transfer of information from the sender (source) to receiver (destination).

Using this perspective, communication is linear as opposed to behavioural perspectives because the perspective believes in transfer of information from one point to the next. The perspective indicates that communication is in a straight line.

Interactive perspectives

This acknowledges that communication involves reciprocal exchange of information.

Communication here is believed to be two sided, allowing chance for feedback and mutual effect.

In the Teaching and learning situation, interactive approaches are always emphasized.

The Theories

Functional theory (FT) - Talcoty persons

The theory states that all communicative acts serve potential functions in a group/society depending on the context in which communication occurs.

This means that communication cannot be without a purpose. It serves certain function.

Rule theory (RT)

The theory states that, communication that occurs every day follows the explicit and implicit rules which are acceptable in social situations.

So, in order to communicate properly, people have to observe rules that apply in their social situations.

Social exchange theory (SET)

This theory stipulates that communication between people is give and take process such that people enter into conversations with others with expectations of getting something out of it. In other words, people enter into communication relationship just like they enter into business relationship where each one aims at gaining not losing

Structuration theory- Antony Gidden

The theory maintains that, communication depends on existence of institutionalized social practices, that is, actions that are recognized as coherent whole by a group (binding people together)

Social actions such as courtship, weddings, which eventually constitute an institution (marriage club, bachelor club, sprinters club) occur as a result of institutionalization of such activities.

So, against the functional theory, this theory claims that it is not possible to have the same communicative act doing the same function all over. It depends on institutionalized practices of society/group/community of the people.

Communication models

The communication specialists developed perspectives on the process of communication and later theorized the communication process. Other scholars went further to the extent of developing models.

By communication models, we refer to graphical representation of the process of communication. Rather than exploring about the process, scholars have simplified by drawing the graphs/diagrams which tell by themselves what would be expected in any communication process.

The communication models from various specializations are then accommodated in the classroom teaching and learning situations

Why learning Communication models?

•          To illustrate how communication takes place.

•          To be aware and able to plan for communication in teaching and learning process. Eg. Avoid noises/barriers of communication.

•          They help a teacher to be an effective communicator in classroom.

 They include:

•          Aristotle’s communication model

•          Shannon and Weaver’s communication model

•          Berlo’s communication model

•          Schramms’s communication model

•          Laswell & Braddock model

Aristotle’s communication model

The model is among the oldest models, developed by the Greek philosopher Aristotle

The model shows that communication is one-way traffic agreeing with the transitional perspectives that the communication acts/serves as the transfer of information from the source to the destination.

Implication to classroom situation:

When the model is applied in normal classroom teaching and learning, it implies that;

•          A teacher applies the transmission approach using teacher centered or lecture method

•          Learners assume the role of listening, noting down the teachers’ points

•          The classroom assumes passivity-this is education that maintains the culture of silence

•          Education in such a situation provides greater authority of the teacher

Roles:

•          The sender becomes the teacher

•          The message becomes the subject content (lesson) and the receivers as learners (pupils/students)

Shannon and Weaver’s communication model

Shannon was a telephone engineer working for Bell, a famous company in the limited strokes (N. America). Thus, the model reflects features of telephone technology.

The information source produces message which is later transmitted through relevant signals depending on the medium used.

The message transmitted passes through relevant signals depending on the medium used.

The message transmitted passes through signals but sometimes is interrupted by noise. Eventually the message reaches the receiver who finally keeps it or gives it to the last destination

Implications to classroom T/L (applicability)

Information source

This can be any authority from which the materials (notice, information, skills, knowledge, ideas are obtained). These include:

•          The library from which the teacher prepares notice

•          The specific book, dictionary, newspaper, journals containing the specific information to be delivered in classroom

•          Computer/electronic sources-webpage from the internet

•          The church/mosque where one learner new information, relevant

•          Museum and archives where specific records are kept

•          Sites where people visit to observe and obtain information

Message 1

From the source of information, teachers obtain what to teach in classroom. This knowledge that teacher gathers becomes the message. The lesson that is planned (lesson plan) is the tool that enables the teacher to be equipped and to be confident before entering the class.

The transmitter

In the teaching and learning, the transmitter refers to the teacher. The teacher plays the role of transmitting the message that is the teacher has to teach the lesson. Thus, a teacher cannot transmit values, knowledge, skills or attitudes without preparing himself/herself first.

The signal

Signals refer to the approaches, methods, strategies and techniques a teacher applies to make the lesson clear. A teacher in such situations needs to decide what approaches can make learners pay attention to the lesson. Some approaches are interactive while others are non-interactive.

Message 2

This is the actual lesson being presented using the approaches a teacher has selected. It differs from the message a teacher obtained from the source, in that ninth later case a teacher delivers the screened message and not the totality of the message he/she picked from information source. There is possibility of other unnecessary things to be left out though the theme remains unchanged

Receiver

The receivers in the classroom situation are learners.

They receive the message/lesson from the teacher.

Destination

The receiver receiving the message (the lesson, they have to keep the knowledge in a safe place so that it is easier to retrieve the information whenever needed)

Destination can therefore be:

•          Received mind

•          Notebook

•          Computer facilities

•          Files/portfolios

Noise

In the teaching and learning situation, noise refers to the interruptions that course learners to fail grasping the lesson delivered

The noise source may be:

•          Physical noise

•          Psychological noise

•          Sociological noise

Berlo’s communication model

Another famous communication model is Berlo's model. In this model, he stresses on the relationship between the person sending the message and the receiver.

According to this model, for the message to be properly encoded and decoded, the communication skills of both the source and the receiver should be at best. The communication will be at its best only if the two points are skilled.

Berlo's model has four main components and each component has its own sub components describing the assisting factors for each.

While the Aristotle model of communication puts the speaker in the central position and suggests that the speaker is the one who drives the entire communication, the Berlo’s model of communication takes into account the emotional aspect of the message. Berlo’s model of communication operates on the SMCR model.

In the SMCR model

•          S - Stands for Source

•          M - Message

•          C - Channel

•          R - Receiver

S - Source

The source in other words also called the sender is the one from whom the thought originates. He is the one who transfers the information to the receiver after carefully putting his thoughts into words.

How does the source or the sender transfer his information to the recipient ?

It is done with the help of communication skills, Attitude, Knowledge, Social System and Culture.

•          Communication Skills

An individual must possess excellent communication skills to make his communication effective and create an impact among the listeners. The speaker must know where to take pauses, where to repeat the sentences, how to speak a particular sentence, how to pronounce a word and so on. The speaker must not go on and on. He should also make a point to cross check with the recipients and listen to their queries as well. An individual must take care of his accent while communicating. A bad accent leads to a boring conversation.

•          Attitude

It is rightly said that if one has the right attitude, the whole world is at his feet. There is actually no stopping for the person if he has the right attitude. A person might be a very good speaker but if he doesn’t have the right attitude, he would never emerge as a winner. The sender must have the right attitude to create a long lasting impression on the listeners. An individual must be an MBA from a reputed institute, but he would be lost in the crowd without the right attitude.

•          Knowledge

Here knowledge is not related to the educational qualification of the speaker or the number of degrees he has in his portfolio. Knowledge is actually the clarity of the information which the speaker wants to convey to the second party. One must be thorough in what he is speaking with complete in-depth knowledge of the subject. Remember questions can pop up anytime and you have to be ready with your answers. You need to be totally familiar with what you are speaking. Before delivering any speech, read as much you can and prepare the subject completely without ignoring even the smallest detail.

•          Social System

Imagine a politician delivering a speech where he proposes to construct a temple in a Muslim dominated area. What would be the reaction of the listeners ? They would obviously be not interested. Was there any problem in the communication skills of the leader or he didn’t have the right attitude ? The displeasure of the listeners was simply because the speaker ignored the social set up of the place where he was communicating. He forgot the sentiments, cultural beliefs, religious feelings of the second party. Had it been a Hindu dominated society, his speech would have been very impressive.

•          Culture

Culture refers to the cultural background of the community or the listeners where the speaker is communicating or delivering his speech.

M - Message

When an individual converts his thoughts into words, a message is created. The process is also called as Encoding.

Any message further comprises of the following elements:

•          Content

One cannot show his grey matter to others to let him know what he is thinking. A thought has to be put into words and content has to be prepared. Content is actually the matter or the script of the conversation. It is in simpler words, the backbone of any communication.

Ted to Jenny -“I am really exhausted today, let’s plan for the movie tomorrow evening”.

Whatever Ted has communicated with Jenny is actually the content of the message. It is very important for the speaker to carefully choose the words and take good care of the content of the speech. The content has to be sensible, accurate, crisp, related to the thought to hit the listeners bang on and create an immediate impact.

•          Element

It has been observed that speech alone cannot bring a difference in the communication. Keep on constantly speaking and the listeners will definitely lose interest after some time. The speech must be coupled with lots of hand movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, body movements to capture the attention of the listeners and make the speech impressive. Hand movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, body movements, gestures all come under the elements of the message.

•          Treatment

Treatment is actually the way one treats his message and is conveys to the listeners. One must understand the importance of the message and must know how to handle it. If a boss wants to fire any of his employees, he has to be authoritative and can’t express his message in a casual way. This is referred to as the treatment of the message. One must understand how to present his message so that the message is conveyed in the most accurate form.

•          Structure

A message cannot be expressed in one go. It has to be properly structured in order to convey the message in the most desired form.

•          Code

Enter a wrong code and the locks will never open. Enter a wrong password, you will not be able to open your email account. In the same way the code has to be correct in the communication. Your body movements, your language, your expressions, your gestures are actually the codes of the message and have to be accurate otherwise the message gets distorted and the recipient will never be able to decode the correct information.

C - Channel

Channel - Channel actually refers to the medium how the information flows from the sender to the receiver.

How does one know what the other person is speaking ? - Through Hearing.

How does one know whether the pasta he has ordered is made in white sauce or not ? - Through Tasting.

How does one know that there is a diversion ahead or it’s a no parking zone? - Through Seeing.

How will an individual come to know that the food is fresh or stale ? How do we find out the fragrance of a perfume ? - Through Smelling.

How will you find out whether the milk is hot or not ? - Through Touching.

All the five senses are the channels which help human beings to communicate with each other.

R - Receiver

When the message reaches the receiver, he tries to understand what the listener actually wants to convey and then responds accordingly. This is also called as decoding.

The receiver should be on the same platform as the speaker for smooth flow of information and better understanding of the message. He should possess good communication skills to understand what the speaker is trying to convey. He should have the right attitude to understand the message in a positive way. His knowledge should also be at par with the listener and must know about the subject. He should also be from the same social and cultural background just like the speaker.

There are several loopholes in the Berlo’s model of communication. According to the berlo’s model of communication, the speaker and the listener must be on a common ground for smooth conversion which is sometimes not practical in the real scenario.

Criticism of Berlo’s smcr model of communication:

•          No feedback / don’t know about the effect

•          Does not mention barriers to communication

•          No room for noise

•          Complex model

•          It is a linear model of communication

•          Needs people to be on same level for communication to occur but not true in real life

•          Main drawback of the model is that the model omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel which is actually a gift to the human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc).

Schramm’s communication model

Schramm and Osgood attempted to criticize and modify previous linear models. They argued that the models were misleading to think of communication process being a linear process starting from somewhere and ending somewhere.

They argued that the models were useful in describing interpersonal communication in which someone was working in the bell telephone laboratory. However, it is important to look for how to improve effective communication in situations that necessitate us to use one way communication.

These scholars pointed out that for effective communication to occur there must be a feedback.

So, they proposed a two way communication model in circular form.

Whereas Schramm and Weaver’s main emphasis was on the media/channel, Schramm and Osgood’s main focus was on the behaviuor of the main actors in the communication process, the sender and the receiver.

These scholars describe the acting parties as equals, performing identical function of encoding, decoding and interpreting the messages.

Implication in the classroom situation

•          The model matches with the views that the teaching and learning should be friendly, collaborative and cooperative between the teacher and learners.

•          It calls for application of interactive teaching and learning methods

•          It lowers or reduces the authoritative tendencies of teachers and promotes students participation in class.

•          Thus, the teaching and learning is a two way communication because both parties have equal chance of contributing ideas in the lesson.

Criticism:

The model lies in the argument that both the sender and the receiver are equal in communication. This may not be the case in all situations

Laswell & Braddock model

It began as the lasswell’s formula before it became a model.

Harlod Laswell was an American political scientist.

He described communication in the form of questions and since it was not in graphic form, they warned it as a formula.

Laswell’s formula lists five questions. To him, for communication to occur, it depends on:

•          Who (source/sender)

•          Says what (content/message)

•          In which channel (media/means)

•          With what effect (techniques/strategies)

At those times, Laswell’s interest was on political communication and propaganda

Other scholars criticized laswell’s formula and added other components in graphic form so that it looks like a model proper.

For example, Braddock proposed two more factors for considerations in analyzing communication process. He published an article titled “an extension of Laswell’s formula” in the journal of communication.

He added two more questions suggesting that for communication to occur effectively, it depends mainly on:

•          For what purpose

•          Under what circumstances

Implications

Who- teacher

Says what- content/lesson

In which channel- media/means

To whom- receiver

For what purpose- general and specific objectives

Under what circumstances- T/L approaches, methods, strategies

With what effect- reflection and on action

The contribution presented by Braddock enabled the Lasswell’s formula to become a model and to fit fully in the educational arena.

Module 3

Contributions of Media in Education

•          Support the sensory organs to maximize effective communication. E.g.

•          Use of an amplifier and a microphone supports effective hearing.

•          Enlarged images of small objects help the learner to see details otherwise impossible to be seen with naked eyes.

•          Enhance retention.

•          Stimulate and sustain interest in learning.

•          Provide first-hand experience with the realities of the physical and social environment.

•          Encourage active participation by learners.

•          Save time (ie: explaining concepts etc).

•          Discourage rote learning.

•          Make abstract ideas more concrete.

•          Develop the power of imagination, observation, reasoning and creativity.

•          The content of a topic can be carefully selected and organized.

•          Delivery of instruction becomes systematic and standardized.

•          Improve the quality of learning (ie:  involve more senses)

•          Teachers’ instruction can be accessed at any convenient time and  place

•          Change chalk and talk instruction to interactive instruction.

Speech

Meaning of Speech

•          It is an oral communication, a medium in which valuable information (skills, knowledge, values and experiences) are passed from one person/authority to others.

•          It is in the form of songs, proverbs, sayings, face-to-face story telling.

•          It dominated a time before the discovery of print and electronic media

•          Currently with modern media, it can be taped, stored, retrieved and reach many people via teleconferencing, radio and TV.

Effectiveness of speech depends on

•          The presenter’s ability to present (ie: never talk while moving fast, maintain eye contact with students etc )

•          Learners’ ability to comprehend

•          Power of memory

•          Both (teacher & learners) to be in the same place and same time (in previous time)

•          Commonly used in teaching and learning situations

Group Activity

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using speech as a medium in teaching and learning process.

Traditional Visual Media in Education

Traditional visual media include:

•          Three dimensional materials: realia, models and specimens.

•          Printed materials: textbooks, workbooks, newspaper, journals, handouts etc.

•          Chalkboards

•          Drawings

•          Graphics: charts, graphs, maps, posters, etc.

Realia

•           Refer real things/objects.

•          Teachers use them in T/L situation to bring in reality of what he/she presents.

•          Examples: cheques, Bank statements on financial management lesson, a tree, house, a hoe, cooking utensils, soil, live animals and plants, equipment and apparatus for Science, musical instruments, shells etc.

Advantages of Using Realia

•          Learners can easily relate them.

•          They provide a clear and true experience.

•          They capture the learners’ interests, thus making learning more effective.

•          They are readily available and their use encourages the teacher to refer to the immediate environment.

•          Their use motivates and stimulates learners.

•          They enhance development of manipulative skills.

Disadvantages of Using Realia

•          Bringing things to class may be difficult especially if they are very big or dangerous.

•          Living things may amplify the learners’ excitement and cause disruption of their learning in the same lesson or another lesson.

•          Some objects may not be safe for the learners to handle (ie: dangerous chemical & animals)

•          Collecting some types of realia may have a negative effect on the environment.

Specimens

Refer to objects which are representative of a group or a class of similar objects. Can be a whole thing  E.g. flower, leaf, fish, frog, and insect OR a part of an object (e.g.: wing of a butterfly, the head of a grasshopper, the bark of a tree etc.) Specimens are usually preserved.

Advantages of Using Specimens

•          Learners can easily relate them.

•          They provide a clear and true experience.

•          They capture the learners’ interests, thus making learning more effective.

•          Their use motivates and stimulates learners.

•          They enhance development of manipulative skills.

•          They are portable.

•          They can be used for a long time of properly handled and stored.

Disadvantages of using Specimens

•          With time, depending on the method of preservation, some parts or characteristics that the specimen represents, such as colour, may be distorted.

•          As they are to be handled with great care learners may not be able to manipulate them as they study them.

•          Some of the liquid preservatives have an offensive smell which may make the learning environment uncomfortable.

Models

A model is a three dimensional recognizable representation of a real thing.

It may be reduced or enlarged reproduction but it is made into size convenient for detailed study.

Models are used if the real thing is not available, too large to take to the class, or too small for the naked eye to see, or too dangerous for the students to manipulate. E.g. the skeletal system of man, the human eye and motors of machines.

Advantages of Using the Models

•          When learners are involved in making the models, they internalize the concepts.

•          Models can be assembled or dissembled when the need arises.

•          Concepts and special features can be easily explained.

•          Being the 3-dimentional, models give the feeling of substance and depth of the real object.

•          Models can be manipulated by learners.

Disadvantages of Using Models

•          Since models are not always made to size, they may give the wrong impression of the real thing.

•          It is difficult to involve learners in making models of things they have never seen.

•          They may be oversimplified which may cause misinterpretation of the real situation.

Group Activity

Three dimensional objects are very useful in T/L situation. Basing on this fact; explore six precautions a teacher should consider for using them effectively.

Print Materials

•          Print established around fifty century BC

•          It came in to facilitate the function of speech and not to replace the speech

•          Speech and print supplement each other

•          Enabled spread of knowledge, skills, information, events, attitudes and experiences via notes, books, journals, varieties of documents to a much wider public.

•          Has made teacher’s notes available to students

•          Printed materials are publications. They Include: Textbooks, worksheets, teachers notes, maps, photographs, posters, newspaper, journals, handouts etc.

•          Are instructional materials mostly accessible and easy to use in most schools

Comments of some scholars on Print as a medium

•          Print will continue to dominate in the teaching and learning situations (Careen, 1984).

•          Print is an intellectual superior medium as it provides foundation for intellectuals and scientific thought

Group Activity:

            Briefly discuss the above two statements via your groups.

Merits of Print Materials

•          Present words, numbers, musical notation, diagrams and signs.

•          Easy interpretation and imagination of issues and situations if  literate persons

•          Bring up interaction between the text and reader(s)

•          Have made teacher’s notes, books etc available to students at their home, schools or a wider public.

•          Easy to read, search, scan and cheap to deliver

•          Are the most found instructional materials in many schools (ie: duplicated copies, the predecessors materials, textbooks etc)

•          Easy materials to use by teachers and students.

•          Convey information quickly.

•          Provide learners with the opportunity for independent study.

•          Save valuable time for teachers as they contain recommended activities, readings and review question.

•          Provide the necessary basic knowledge for a particular topic.

•          Provide a common experience for the whole class.

•          Ensure continuity of learning in case there is a change of teachers.

•          Last long if properly cared for.

•          Easy to store.

•          Can be conveniently used at the learners’ pace.

•          Can be used by learners of all ages.

•          Review questions enable learners to do self-evaluation.

Group Activity

Examine at least ten disadvantages of using print materials in T/L situations.

Factors to Think About when Choosing Print Materials for your Students

•          Who are my learners? (ie: age, level, interests).

•          What is the material about/content? (ie: appropriateness, up-to-date etc)

•          Is the material well structured? (ie: logical arrangement, clarity of message, completeness of the material etc)

•          Language used (ie: easy to understand? Difficult? etc)

•          Is it readable? (will student  enjoy reading it?)

•          Font size and spacing (small /big words? Closeness of words?, lots of space between rows? A lot of pictures?)

•          Layout (ie: page attractive? Will you be able to photocopy it?)

•          Number of illustrative materials such as photographs, charts, diagrams and drawings

                        -Use captions and explanatory notes for diagrams       and pictures.

                        -Often a few large diagrams and pictures are better than many small ones.

                        - Consider the visual literacy competencies of the       readers.

•          Durability ( Is the material durable?)

Graphics

Are materials that communicate facts and ideas clearly and vividly through the combination of drawings, words and pictures.

Examples are

- charts

              - posters

              - pictures

              - graphs

              - diagrams

              - maps and globes.

Points to note when a teacher plan to use graphics

      - graphics present facts in summary

        - displayed information should be mistakes free

               - should be removed after they have served their purpose and replaced with new ones

Charts

•          are used to display summaries of data using histograms, pie charts, graphs, maps and other concept maps, diagrams.

•          Building charts’ materials: sugar paper, thin card, manila paper, cloth, or wrapping paper.

Characteristics of Good Charts

•          Big and clear print that can be seen by all the learners.

•          Labeling that is horizontal and in straight lines.

•          Accurate and if there are maps, drawn to scale.

•          Attractive enough to capture and hold attention and interest of the learners.

•          Accurate and authentic use of colors in its representation of people, events and things. (i.e: water masses should be blue and not any other color.

•          A neat layout with margins that makes important information stand out.

•          Suitable for the age and level of maturity of the learners.

Group Activity

Examine pros and corns of using charts as a T/L  resource in classroom context (at least five each)

Discuss the position of charts in the current teaching and learning in Tanzanian schools.

A poster

•           is a symbolic design or picture

•          tells a story or convey information attractively to people or learners.

•          Highlights subject matters and/or stimulate interest

 

Effectiveness of Posters in T/L Process

Depends on these factors:

•           Must be placed at a straight point

•           Must be dramatic and simple

•           it carries few words as possible

•           Visually attractive in terms of color, design and letters used.

•           Must be clear and simple for message

•           Must aim at one main purpose

•           Must be large enough.

Group Activity

•          Assess why use of posters in teaching and learning in our classes are too minimal?

•          Suggest the best ways a teacher can employ posters in his/her lesson ( at least four)

•          Do posters have advantages and disadvantages? Make your comments.

Picture and Photographs

Pictures

•          Does not need a certain language in order to interpret message of a picture

•          Easy to understand

•          Can have different interpretations depending on past experiences of learners.

•          Can be used to:

                        - introduce a lesson

            - develop vocabularies

            - conclude a lesson

Group Activity

Outline at least three points a teacher needs to focus on when choosing a picture for use in her/his lesson

Discuss not less than five merits and three demerits of using pictures in the teaching and learning process

Pinpoint four areas in your subject specialization in which pictures can be applied and briefly suggest good way on how could be applied? 

 as T/L resources, discuss briefly what  contributions can be obtained from using  photographs in lesson

Maps and Globes

A Globe

It is a spherical representation of the earth’s surface

A Map

•          Is a visual scaled-down representation of  a flat surface or some portion of the earth on paper

•          Both have symbols (to easy read, use and interpret)

•          Globes are more accurate than maps as represent the true shape of the earth

BOARDS

•          Are used as teaching and learning resources

Examples of boards are:

        - chalkboards

        - Flannel boards

        - bulletin boards

Two types/categories of boards are:

 - Wallboards

 - Portable boards

i) Chalkboards

A chalkboard is a reusable writing surface on which the teacher writes and draws using chalk.

•          Colors of chalkboards (ie: black, blue, grey, green or any             other color that provide good legibility).

•          Often called a blackboard

•          A traditional, most frequently medium available in classrooms

Types of chalkboards:-

•          Fixed chalkboard

•          Portable chalkboard

•          Horizontal sliding boards

•          Vertical sliding boards.

Effective use of Chalkboard

•          Write the date, class, subject and topic at the start of the lesson.

•          Divide the blackboard into 2 or 3 more fields which are each similar in size.

•          Erase any written material on the chalkboard after each use.

•          Always keep the chalkboard clean.

•          Write horizontally and straight.

•          Keep the handwriting neat, legible and uniform.

•          Make sure that all the learners can see the chalkboard.

•          Use underlining, encircling or framing to focus   attention on important details.

•          Leave the space around diagrams

•          Avoid overcrowding the board to avoid confusion.

•          When the teacher needs to talk while writing, he/she should make sure he/she talks to the class and not to the chalkboard.

•          When pointing or explaining something, always stand at the side and use a pointer to avoid obstructing the learners’ view.

•          Organize work systematically on the chalkboard.

•          Develop the summary on the chalkboard as the lesson develops.

•          Develop illustrations as you teach. Prepare complicated ones before lesson to avoid time wastage and indiscipline

Uses of the Chalkboard

•          For introducing a lesson

•          For presenting a skeleton plan for the lesson

•          For recording the main points of a lesson.

•          For writing questions to be worked out

•          For defining technical terms, keywords or concepts.

•          For developing sketch maps or drawings.

•          For writing a lesson summary.

•          For mounting charts and other T/L resources.

Group Activity

Discuss at least four materials that are likely to be used with the chalkboard

ii) Flannel/Cloth boards

•          A board covered with cloth such as flannel/felt.

•          Cloth need to be plain to allow material displayed on it.

•          Information is prepared and then fixed using masking tape.

Construction of Flannel Board

•          Take either a plywood or hardboard and cut it into required dimensions.

•          Cover one side of the board with flannel or felt, stretching it tightly as you pin it on the other side of the board with drawing pins. If flannel is not available, an old blanket tacked very tightly will do the trick.

•          Materials for use on the flannel board can be cut out from magazines or they could be drawn by you. By backing these materials with flannel, sandpaper, ink blotters, paint, felt pens, sponges or sacking, they will adhere readily to flannel or felt.

Group Activity

•          Critically assess the environment that likely can support use of flannel/cloth boards

•          Survey the merits and demerits of flannel boards in the process of teaching and learning

•          What seem to be the importance of flannel boards in T/L process?

Note:

Have a look on bulletin boards and its uses

A bulletin board (pinboard, pin board, noticeboard, or notice board in British English) is a surface intended for the posting of public messages, for example, to advertise items wanted or for sale, announce events, or provide information. Bulletin boards are often made of a material such as cork to facilitate addition and removal of messages, or they can be placed on computer networks so people can leave and erase messages for other people to read and see.

RESOURCE CENTRES

are classified building(s) or room(s)

 Aim: update people with information, data, knowledge, research findings, reports or new technologies             (Mwakyikyeli, 2003)

Channels of communication facilities:

 - technicians, coordinators and experts

  - textual, visual, audio-visual media

Is made up of two terms: resource and centre

Resources means resource persons and non-resource persons.

Resource persons:

Include subject experts, teachers,        coordinator, technicians, researchers, program developers etc

A person becomes a resource only if she/he is flexible to assist learners in learning difficulties.

             

Non-resources persons:

Comprise of aids, technologies and other media.

They are used by teachers, educators and students

Centre

-refers to a gathering place (ie: room, building etc) for learning purpose.

 - also a place where resources are kept.

Major types of resource centers:

RC that favour different disciplines

    - they cater general needs of people

    - examples: libraries and historical buildings

RC that favour specific discipline purposes

    - they are professionals ones

    - examples: Teacher Resource Centres (TRCs), Resource centre design (RCD),etc 

Goal of Resource Centre (RC)

To make valuable knowledge, information and technologies available to people (ie: scholars)

Functions of RC:

•          Provision of facilities/guidance for production of materials.

•          Guiding application of learning materials

•          Ensuring systematic arrangement of resources

                         -to attract users of the centre

                                     -to easy the retrieving system.

•          Procuring and storing educational materials/resources (suitable ones & cater different disciplines) 

•          Collect books, research reports, useful documents, data and information as well as non-textual media for users of the centre

•          Coordinate activities of different users/institutions to ensure optimal use of available resources

•          To run seminars/workshops

•          To advertise and motivate individuals, groups, organizations and institutions maximize use of the centre

TEACHER’S RESOURCE CENTRE (TRC)

TRC is a community of well trained people, adequately equipped with educational facilities located in attractive places to encourage and help students and teachers communicate, investigate and learn together as a team (Henderson, 1972).

Essence of TRC

Is traced back in1950s-UK (Mushi, 2003) and in Britain-1960 (Khaisa, 2011).

•          In UK- aimed to make a vital contribution to curriculum development

•          to identify teachers’ training needs after they met together to share ideas and experiences

On-going hindrances were:

•          Top-down programmes in its running How? – lack of collegiality among teachers

In Britain- aimed to enable teachers come  together to exchange ideas and experiences among themselves focusing on their subjects

Issues addressed by TRCs were:

    - lack of resources

    - limited access to materials & equipments (teachers and rural schools)

Roles of TRC

•          Major role: to enhance professional development (conducting seminar/workshop; tackling difficult topics, designing modules and aids for T/L; promoting innovation & improvisation-in methods)

•           raise academic qualification of teachers

    -upgrading teachers ie: 3B/C into 3A; 3A into         diploma etc

•          Serves as a deports for educational materials and distribution

•          Serves as teachers’ meeting places and also with their management.

•          Link positively the school and community

•          Centre for qualitative improvement of education

•          Provider of useful update library services for teachers (ie: data bank of education performance records)

•          Training of teachers (refresher training, to exposure teachers to training possibilities like distance learning; reference books)

•          Encourage action research by teachers

•          To build and sustain professionalism

Group Activity

Reflecting of TRCs in Tanzania, assess their weaknesses.

Module 4

COMPUTER IN EDUCATION

Computer is a machine that manipulates and processes data and information in response to a list of instructions. it is an electronic device which takes inputs from the user in form of data and instructions, and processes the data to give out information that is displayed to the user.

Components of a Computer

A computer system is usually made up of hardware, software, and media to store the software.

Hardware: refer to all physical devices or equipment in the computer system.

Software (programs): refer to sets of instructions written in computer language that let users give directions to the hardware.

Components of hardware

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

•          CPU performs the actual work of the computer system i.e. processing user instructions.

•          This is the part of the system that can be accurately called the computer.

•          CPUs are a series of electronic circuits arranged and stored on silicon chips.

•          In microcomputers, these chips are housed on a component called motherboard.

Motherboard (mainboard): The place where most of the electronics including the CPU are mounted. It is the backbone of the computer. All the individual pieces connect to the motherboard in some way.

Processor - This is the chip that does the "thinking" of the computer. These are the "Pentium" and "AMD" chips you hear about. Processor speed is measured in Megahertz MHz) and Gigahertz GHz). 1 Ghz = 1000 Mhz

CPU consists of three parts:-

•           The control unit (CU): directs the activities of the whole system.

•          Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): All operations in a computer are based on computations such as computer’s basic arithmetic operations of adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, storing and comparing bits of information.

•          Memory unit.

Memory Unit (Internal Memory)

There are two types of memory:-

•          Random access memory (RAM) serves as temporary storage for user requests in the form of applications program commands and the data that programs use.

•           Read only memory (ROM) is a type of memory designed to hold instructions permanently within the computer.

Input Devices

These are devises through which users give instructions and information to the computer system. E.g. keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphones, optical character reader (OCR), digital camera, voice recognition units.

Output Devices

These are devises that display the results of what the computer does. E.g. monitor (CRO), printer, liquid crystal display (LCD), speech synthesizers and speaker.

Other Hardware Devices

External Storage I/O devices: E.g. Disk drives.

Communication Devices: E.g. Modem.

Using Software Tools in T/L

•          Material generators: Help teachers to produce instructional materials such as lesson plans and notes. E.g. word processing, databases and spreadsheets.

•          Data collection and analysis tools: Help teachers collect and organize numerical information that indicates students progress. E.g. spreadsheets.

•          Graphics tools: Allow production of images and illustrations. E.g. Photoshop, video-maker.

•          Research and reference tools: Electronic versions of encyclopedia, atlases, and dictionaries, usually stored in CD-ROM.

•          Teachers/learners access valuable information from their  homes/desks. This is done via searching on the internet.

•           Specific computer programmes produce accurate maps, graphs, documents and also print them.

•           If used in conjunction with satellite communication, radio programs and broadcasts can be received in schools.

•           When computer used in combination with DVDs and CDs, pre-recorded information can be advantaged for use when needed.

•          Test generators and test question bank.

•          Puzzle generators.

•          Making certificates.

•          Distance learning. E.g. internet, videoconferencing, e-mail.

•          Send assignments/questions/notes/clarifications via emails to students OR feedback to teachers from the students (interaction)   despite of distance.

•           Facilitate individual learning and self-evaluation (computer-aided     instructions matters)

Using Specific Software Tools in T/L

This section discusses some software tools and their application in T/L. These include:-

•          Word Processing Software

•          Spreadsheet Software

•          Database Software

•          Presentation Software

Word Processing

Word processing is simply put, typing on a computer. E.g. Ms. Word.

Uses of Word Processing:

•          Preparing lesson plans and notes.

•          Keeping student information and handouts.

•          Frequently used worksheets and exercises.

•          Preparing flyers and other announcements.

•          Periodic student progress letters to parents.

•          Preparing annual reports for the school.

Spreadsheet

Electronic spreadsheet programs organise and manipulate numerical data. E.g .Ms. Excel

Applications of spreadsheet

•          Perform calculations and comparisons for student’s examination results.

•          Can be used to create graphs for given data such as attendance charts.

Database

Databases are programs that allow users to store, organise, and manipulate information including both text and numerical data.

Uses of Databases in school

•          Inventorying and locating instructional resources. E.g. Ms Access

Presentation Software

•          These are programs that allow users to create and display a series of screens called slides.

•          They can contain images, text, graphics, sound video clips or combination of these.

•           They can be used for tutorial conferences, seminars and exhibitions.

•           E.g. Ms. Power point.

Using Instructional Software

•          Instructional software are programs developed for the sole purpose of delivering instruction or supporting learning activities.

•          Instructional software are sometimes referred to as computer assisted instruction (CBI), computer-based instruction (CBL), or computer assisted learning.

Instructional Software Include:-

•          Drill and practice: These are exercises in which students work example items, usually one at a time and receive feedback on their correctness.

•          Tutorial: delivers an entire instructional sequence similar to a teacher’s classroom instruction on the topics. This instruction usually is expected to complete enough to stand alone (information summaries, explanation, practice routines, feedback and assessment); the student should be able to learn the topic without any help or other materials from outside the courseware.

•          Simulation: is an imitation or a representation of an actual physical or social situation reduced to manageable proportions to serve a specific purpose.

 A simulation is a computerized model of a real or imagined system designed to teach how a system works.

Microcomputer-based Laboratory (MBL)

•          MBL are electronic systems used to collect, organise, and process real world data automatically.

•          Any minds-on/hands-on experimental activities where a computer and sensor gather, process, and display data directly from the environment is called microcomputer-based laboratory (MBL).

Advantages of using computers:

•           They break the monotony of routine teaching.

•           They reinforce/enhance learner’s interest in learning.

•           Teaching and learning can be made interactive.

•           Computers can store, retrieve, manipulate, process, transmit and receive information.

•           Teachers/learners present work in a more organized manner. It is      because they can use computer to write, draw and print.

•           Better and more accurate information can be accessed at will.

•           Alternative teaching approaches can be easily and conveniently implemented.

•          Interactivity - engaging the learner to think, respond, receive feedback and  become involved with subject matter in a meaningful way.

•          Learner’s can self-pace through the instructions repeating or skimming as needed.

•          Learning when it is convenient for the learner, no travel costs or disruptions.

•          Cost-Effective for the learner.

•          Can reach large audiences at various locations, convenient for the learner.

•          Increased retention.

•          Knowledge and ability can reach physically challenged learners.

Disadvantages of using computers

•          Plagiarism.

•           Demands computer literacy skill.

•           Too expensive to buy and maintain.

•           Schools’ inaccessibility to internet services.

•           Learners/teachers to access improper information if internet is misused.

•           Wastage of time playing computer games that distract learner’s attention.

•          Isolation - some students may regret the lack of social interaction.

•          Lack of suitable hardware resources. Whether used at a university or in an office or at home, requires access to suitable hardware.

•          It is not as convenient as a book. Books are light, portable, provide instant.

•          Inefficient utilization of computers. Why? Due to lack of electricity connection.

•           One computer to one learner at a given time. It implies that many computers are needed/required.

Using projectors to Enlarge Images

•           Projected image refers to the pictorial representation beamed from an object on a projector platform and displayed onto a screen.

•          The projector may be an overhead, a film, a slide or even an LCD projector.

•          When you place the projector close to screen the image gets bigger; when you place the projector far from the screen the image gets bigger. I.e. The further the projector from the screen the bigger the image and vice versa.

OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP)

•          The overhead projector is a machine used to project images from transparency to the screen for classroom view.

•          The Overhead projector, as the name implies, is a hardware used for projecting a transparent visual onto a screen placed behind the presenter.

•          It is soundless and non-motion picture machine.

Major Parts of OHP

OHP comprises three main parts:-

•          The head: Contains mirror, lens and elevation adjustment.

•          The arm: Holds the head and the focus knob.

•          The body: Contains glass plate, Fresnel lens, fan, lamp, lamp switch and acetate role.

•          The Stage - The stage is the glass surface where the transparency is placed.

The Head: The head is the part of the projector housing the mirror. Light is projected at the head passes through the image and reflects off of the mirror before is exits and is shown on a screen.

The Arm – the arm is an adjustable metal rod that holds the head. Using the adjustment knob the head can be made to move near to the stage or far away from it.

Mirror: To deflect the beam of coloured light from the light source to the screen.

Lens: To enlarge the picture, large enough to be seen at a distance.

Elevation adjustment:  To adjust the position of the picture on the screen.

Focus knob: To focus the image sharply on the screen.

Fresnel lens: To collect to the centre the light from the bulb and throw it to the head through the glass plate.

Fan: To cool down the bulb to prolong its life span.

Lamp: produce light for projection.

Lamp switch: To switch on/off the power in the projector.

Functioning of OHP

The functioning of an overhead projector is very simple.

•          A bright lamp within the unit shines through a translucent sheet of plastic.

•           Markings on the plastic colour block the light which then travels to a mirror at the top of the overhead.

•           This image is then projected onto a screen for the audience to see.

•           The coloration on the transparency, the plastic sheet containing coloured writing and images, determines what patterns will appear on the projected image.

USING OHP

Setting up

•          The screen should be placed at the corner near the window in front of the classroom, to avoid incoming reflection of the light. (In a darkroom the screen can be placed at any position in front of the classroom.

•          The screen should be tilted at an angle of about 12 degree forward, to avoid keystone effect.

•          Keystone effect appears when the beam of projected image lands on the screen at an angle other than 90°.

•          Align thoroughly the OHP to the screen and focus sharply by using focus knob to get sharp image. The switch off the OHP.

NB. Setting up should be done before presentation time.

Preparation of OHP Transparencies

OHP transparencies can be produced in two main methods:-

•          By hand: using felt pen. The pens can be permanent group and non-permanent group (water soluble).

•          Avoid any direct contact between transparency and your hand.

•          Letters should be large enough.

•          Photocopying:  In the photocopier transparency (heat resistant.

Uses of OHP

The OHP can be used for projecting both verbal and visual material during a training programme. A few instances where the OHP can be used are listed below.

a) While presenting a sequence of points, stages, parts, components, processes etc.

b) For presenting  tables, worked-out examples, data, charts etc.

c) For presenting diagrams and drawings used as illustration/for explanations,

d) For showing charts and maps for explanation or an activity.

e) To display pictures and illustrations.

OHP Presentation Techniques

•          A right-handed presenter should stand or sit to the left of the OHP looking at the class, and project from the right hand side to the right hand side of the audience. The left-handed presenter is automatically vice-versa.

•          The projection across corners is better than forward, as it will avoid the teacher to obscure the screen.

•          Revealing technique: This is a technique that allows projection of one information or diagram at a time. This can be done by covering the unwanted information with opaque paper or cardboard.

•          Overlay Technique: In case you want to present a complex diagram, you may present that diagram in phases. Several transparencies are mounted together one over the other so that information overlaps stage by stage to make one complete diagram.

•          To show a specific point on the information use a pointer. The pointer  can be used to point either on the screen or on the projection stage of the machine. Care should be taken not to obscure the image projected on the screen or to come between the screen and the projector. Knitting needle or sharp pencil would provide a good pointer. Avoid using your finger.

•          During presentation, remember to allow enough time to read what you have projected. The best way doing this is to read carefully the transparency to yourself word to word.

Advantages of Using OHP

•          Overheads are inexpensive and Is cost effective.

•          easy to use

•          reliable

•          have very few moving parts.

•          Provides enlarged visual

•          Can be used during the day

•          Allows trainees to face the class.

•          Is flexible in use.

•          Is easy to arrange and operate

•          Overcomes trainer incompetence

•          Saves writing time

•          Provides colourful visuals.

Limitations of using OHP

•          Too delicate machine

•          Expensive (initial costs & its running)

•          Demands constant high voltage power to drive the OHP.

•          Demands good storage (machine & software)

•          Systematic routine to service is required

•          Easy to distract students’ concentration or attention if left on during on-going of the lesson

•          Use and advantages needs special attention that most teachers lack.

•          Images commonly affected by keystone effect if the surface is not inclined at a correct angle.

EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING (EB)

Implies: use of radio/TV in T/L process

•          EB refers the process of transmitting and distributing to school and the entire public the educational information over the radio, TV or combination of the two.

Why EB?

Aims to enrich and improve education in a different way from the usual and specialized way.

Main Sections of Educational Broadcasts

•          School broadcasts

•          Correspondences course broadcast

•          In-service educational broadcast for teachers

Note/Caution:

Before effecting radio/TV broadcasts, a printed hard material is sent to inform users on the day, date and time of that program/lesson and some notes to teachers

School Broadcasting (SB)

•          SB is a process whereby a subject teacher is carefully selected because of his/her exceptional teaching skills and expertise transmits lessons through radio or television to reach many learners.

•          Thus, intended knowledge can be accessed by the target learners in the shortest time possible using very few subject experts.

•          In most cases teaching materials including timetables, lesson booklets, manuals and any other materials are distributed in advance.

•          Schools are guided by the timetable, when to assemble students for a broadcast lesson.

•          During the lesson, the class teacher, using teachers introduces the lesson, turns on the receiver and a single teacher takes over through broadcast.

Advantages of School Broadcasting

•          All targeted students benefit the expertise of an exceptionally good subject teacher at the same time.

•          A standard understanding of intended knowledge across schools.

•          A solution to limited number of subject experts over a fast growing school population and educational seekers.

•          Enhance professional development for teachers in schools.

Disadvantages of School Broadcasting

•          Expensive in terms of capital investment and infrastructure.

•          Scheduling may involve adjusting the school time table.

•          Learners may become passive.

•          They do not cater for individual differences.

•          The language used may be too advanced for the learners.

•          There is usually no feedback from the learners to the teacher.

Role of EB

•          To inform: (ie : the public on what takes place on their country/world)

•          Offer a range of entertainments (ie: in form of music, dance or poetry…)

•          To motivate the public (ie; use of advertisement)

•          Subject control (ie: bring the world to classroom for learning purpose; knowledge and content is brought to students and within short time)   

•          Behavioral changes (i.e: habits and styles may change such as HIV awareness, smoking/population control)

Handling a Broadcasting Lesson

•          As teachers, play a facilitator’s role

•          Use the first and last stages to interact with the students/pupils

•          Familiarize with all the control of the devices (TV/Radio)

•          Know exactly the timetable of the broadcasting

Pre-lesson Activities of a Teacher

•          Examine the aims/reasons and methods of why listening that program?

•          Establish if there is any type of assistance you know would require to succeed in your lesson (ie: text books, visual aids etc) 

•          Establish whether the broadcast program can fit in the timetabled programs at the institutions

•          Have good and working recording tool if it is in need

 

Activities during Presentations

•          Presence of the teacher during presentations is of great importance

•          Ensure the entire broadcast runs from the beginning to the end without interpretations

•          As a teacher, jot down new information and explain later where the teacher-student participation necessary.

Radio as a Medium in T/L Process

Radio is a device that transmits message through the air by means of electrical waves.

Radio broadcasting is now a chief means of transmitting/communicating message to large audiences at the same time

Advantages of using radio in T/L process:

•          A wider coverage

•          Immediate. Fast message transmitting device

•          Literate and illiterate people benefit from it

•          Creates mass education

•          Authentic source of messages as deemed by most people

•          A cheap device to purchase

•          Messages from resource persons, consultants, experts etc usually contribute to the subject matter transmitted

Group activity

What might be the hindrances of most schools in employing radio as a teaching and learning medium?

TV as a Medium in the T/L Process

Television (TV) is an electronic device that transmits still and moving pictures with accompanying sound, through wires and space.

•          There are two types of TV:-

•          Open Circuit: This is the usual telecast device used by home viewers. Here programs are commercially sponsored and purposely produced for home viewing.

•          Closed Circuit: This sends specifically designed signals for classroom instruction purposes. Interests educators and learners only. E.g. Microteaching skills

Contributions of TV in T/L situations:

•          Students are able to hear and see

•          Arouses students’ interests

•          Some presentations are done by resource persons

•          It is an authentic course of information transmission

•          It brings distant world to the classroom

•          It is good for mass education

Limitations of TV in T/L

•          Costful to buy and maintain

•          They are useless in absence of electricity

•          It is a fragile and delicate device

•          Unclear images are received in case of poor reception

•          It is one-way communication

•          It never consider individual differences among students/pupils

Group Activity

Why the school radio and television broadcasting are not popular in Tanzanian context?

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

•          One of the most empowering programmes in computer assisted educational programmes is a PowerPoint programme.

•           Like the OHP, a PowerPoint presentation is well guided, sequenced, motivational and indeed well placed for provision of facts.

•          In addition to the advantages of an OHP this facility provides animation for improved orchestration of information for improved comprehension. Otherwise PowerPoint is merely a computer programme (Microsoft) now preinstalled in almost all PCs.

•          To Start Switch on your computer to the desktop environment.

•          Locate PowerPoint on the computer's desktop or under the Programs folder.

•          To create a PowerPoint Master Template: Entering text to a selected frame can be accomplished in many ways:-

•          typing directly into slide by slide;

•           cutting and pasting chunks of text from a word document;

•           or copying an entire document into the outline view.

•          Select "Blank presentation" from the "New Presentation" window

•          Choose the desired layout from the auto layout format in the "New slide" window

•          Follow instructions and start entering your data or text to the frame provided.

•          Choose a name and serve your first slide.

•          To insert a new frame click on insert menu .

•          Keep entering your data by selecting Insert new slide every time you finish one slide.

Inserting Background Colour

•          Select "Custom Background" from the "Format" menu.

•          Click the down arrow in the Background fill area on the Custom Background window.

•          Select colour desired

•          Click the down arrow in the Background Fill area on the Custom Background

•          Click OK.

•          Click Apply to All to make the changes to all slides in the presentation.

Choosing a Textured Fill as a Background

•          Select "Custom Background" from the "Format" menu.

•          Click the down arrow in the Background Fill area on the Custom Background window.

•            Select "Textured Fill..." to go to Textured Fill window.

•            Click the down arrow in the textures area on the Textured Fill window and selected desired texture fill

•            and click OK

•          Click Apply to All

Creating Graphics with PowerPoint

•          Using PowerPoint, you can add graphics to enhance your presentation or to illustrate your instruction. To do this, select "Slide View" from the "View" menu.

IMPORTING GRAPHICS INTO POWERPOINT

•          Select "Clip Art" from the "Insert" menu.

•          Select the categories of the clip art.

•          Click the clip art to be used.

•          Click insert.

•          Resize the graphic to the desired dimension and position

To import pictures from scanned files

•          Select "Pictures" from the "Insert" menu.

•          Navigate to the folder containing the pictures.

•          Select the picture.

•          Click insert.

•          Resize the graphic to the desired dimension and position.

Importing Video Clips

•          In situations where a short clip of a demonstration, a movie clip or an animation, where showing a short film would improve effectiveness of your presentation do insert a video clip following these steps.

•          Select "Slide View" from the "View" menu

•          Select "Movie" from the "Insert" menu.

•          Navigate to the folder where the movie is stored.

•          Select the file and Click OK.

•          After you inserted the movie, you can scale it, providing that the quality is not affected.

Inserting A Picture as a Background

You can insert a picture as a background that you have scanned or digitally created for this purpose by doing the following:

•          Select "Custom Background" from the "Format" menu.

•          Click the down arrow in the Background Fill area on the Custom Background window.

•          Select 'Insert Picture...' to go to the Insert Picture window.

•          Navigate to the location of the desired picture.

•          Click the picture to be used and click OK.

•          Click Apply to All to make the changes to all slides in the presentation.

Playing the Slide Show

•          When you are already set play you PowerPoint presentation by :

•          Select "Slide Show" from the "View" menu.

•          Click the left mouse or the down arrow on the keyboard to move to the next slide

•          To stop the show press the "Esc" key on the keyboard or

•          Click the right mouse and choose end the show.

MULTIMEDIA IN EDUCATION

Definition of Multimedia

•          The concept multimedia is derived from the words ‘multi’ which means many or multiple; and ‘media/medium’ which refers to tool/vehicle or agent to present or communicate something.

•          Multimedia can simply be defined as the application of more than one media at the same time in a presentation.

•          Multimedia is the use of several different media (eg text, audio, graphics, animation, video, and interactivity) to convey information.‟

•          When a person watches television, the television shows the person everything. There is sound and pictures, and sometimes even words on the screen. The person watching does not have to put much effort into understanding what is happening on the television.

•          Educational multimedia is understood to be multimedia which provides learning resources by using a variety of media in an integrated way for the purpose of instruction. By doing so we provide resources to students in ways that best suit their learning needs and capture their interest.

Significance of Multimedia in Education

•          Multimedia responds to diverse sensory needs of the learners based on their cognitive strategies.

•          Research has revealed that learning occurs better when more than one of the sensory organs of the learner is involved. E.g. Learners know it better when they see, touch and finally taste an orange than merely hearing a thunderstorm.

•          The combination helps learners to form correct concepts. When for some reasons a learner misses a point through one sensory means, it is compensated for through another sensory means.

•          Meaningful learning occurs when learners construct and coordinate multiple representations of the same materials including visual and verbal representations.

•          If implemented thoughtfully multimedia can facilitate learning and promote deeper understanding.

•           Using multimedia also supports students with different preferences for how information is presented.

•          Pictures convey information more quickly than words.

•          Virtual worlds enable learners to actively participate in authentic tasks, empowering them to do things in an environment that provides a level of complexity and information representative of the actual setting rather than be passive observers.

•          Interactive animations can create more exciting and attractive learning experiences.

•          Students can choose start and stop simulations at their own pace.

•          They can view and scrutinise images as often as they like, repeat practice quizzes or audiotape lessons for clarification of topics.

•          Caters to the different ways in which students learn.

•          By providing more than one way for students to gain information we are improving accessibility.

•          A lesson involving many sensory organs is interesting to the learners.

•          Multimedia enhances retention.

•          Satisfies educational objectives.

•          Increases student understanding.

•          Can be used to demonstrate events and show places.

•          Experiments can be conducted that would otherwise be impossible.

Elements of Multimedia

Multimedia learning integrates five types of media to provide flexibility in expressing the creativity of a student and in exchanging ideas: text, video, sound, graphics and animation; thus providing a powerful new tool for education.

Text

•          Out of all the elements, text has the most impact on the quality of the multimedia interaction.

•          Generally, text provides the important information.

•          Text acts as the keystone tying all of the other media elements together.

•          It is a well written text that makes a multimedia communication wonderful.

Sound /Audio

•          Audio refers to sound recording and its reproduction where sound can mean voice, music and sound effects.

•          Sound is used to provide emphasis or highlight a transition from one page to another.

•          Sound synchronized to screen display, enables teachers to present lots of information at once.

•           Complex images can be paired with spoken explanation. E.g. art-pictures are glossed by the voiceover; or math-a proof fills a screen while the spoken explanation plays in the background.

•          Sound used creatively, becomes a stimulus to the imagination; used inappropriately it becomes a hindrance or annoyance.

Benefits of Audio / Sound

•          Simple to create with freely available software.

•          Audio introductions personalise online modules.

•          Audio recordings help students recognise sounds, improve listening (music) and pronunciation (foreign language studies) skills.

Video

•          Video refers to the technology of capturing, recording, processing, transmitting, and reconstructing moving pictures.

•          The representation of information by using the visualization capabilities of video can be immediate and powerful.

•          There are many instances when students, studying particular processes, may find themselves faced with scenario that seems highly complex when conveyed in purely in text form, or by of diagrams and images. In such situations the representational qualities of video help in placing a theoretical concept into context.

•          Video can stimulate interests if it is relevant to the rest of the information on the page and is not overdone.

•          Video can be used to give examples of phenomena or issues referred to in the text. For instance, while students are reading notes about a particular issue, a video showing a short clip of the author/teacher emphasizing the key points can be inserted at a key moment.

•          Video clips can be used to tell readers what to do next.

•          It is unlikely that video can completely replace the face-to-face lecture; rather video needs to be used to supplement textual information.

•          The use of video is appropriate to convey information about environments that can be either dangerous or too costly to consider, or recreate, in real life. For example: video images used to demonstrate particular chemical reactions without exposing students to highly volatile chemicals, or medical education, where real-life situations can better understood via video.

Advantages of using Video in Education

•          Video has dramatic ability to elicit an emotional response from an individual.

•          Presents scenarios otherwise inaccessible to traditional classroom.

Animation

•          Animations are simulations of movement of graphic images.

•          Animations are used to show changes overtime, or to present information slowly to students so they have time to assimilate it in smaller chunks.

•          When combined with user input, enable students to view different versions of change over time depending on different variables.

•          Animations are primarily used to demonstrate an idea or illustrate a concept.

•          Video is usually taken from life, whereas animations are based on drawings.

•          There are two types of animations: cel-based and object-based.

•          Cel-based animation consists of multiple drawings, each one different from the others. When shown in rapid sequence the drawings appear to move.

•          Object-based animation (slide or path animation) moves an object across a screen. The object itself does not change.

Benefits of Animations

•          Processes (over time) otherwise invisible to the human eye are made visible.

•          Animations add impact to presentations, enliven a message, illustrate individual steps making complex information appear simple.

Graphics

•          Graphics are visual elements that include everything from still images, icons, graphs, diagrams, illustrations, photographs, artwork, and maps; taken from spreadsheet, pictures from CD-ROM, or something pulled from the internet. With a scanner, hand drawn work can be included.

•          Graphics provide the most creative possibilities for learning session.

•          The capacity of recognition memory for pictures is almost limitless. Images make use of a wide range of cortical skills: colour, form, line, dimension, texture, virtual rhythm, and especially imagination.

Benefits of Using Graphics

•          Information presented in an alternative format enhances written text.

•          Aids visualisation.

•          Supports conceptual learning.

•           Object analysis is enabled.

Interactive Media

•          Educationists have shown that certain forms of learning becomes easier, and is retained more permanently if the learner participates in some way with the learning material.

•          The incorporation of interactivity is assisted if the network is capable of two-way communication, and for some applications the sense of interactivity is aided by the ability to deliver a moving picture, or a sound very quickly, so that a sense of two-way human participation can be generated.

Examples of Interactive media:-

•          Real time video conferencing.

•          Courseware: refers to educational applications within an online lesson (eg multiple choice quiz (MCQ), fill-in-the-blank activity, tutorials, or microcomputer based laboratories.

•          Virtual labs: A virtual lab is a virtual world within which students can engage specifically in science lab activities such as microscopy or compound synthesis.

•          Virtual worlds (digital worlds):  refer to interactive simulated 3D virtual spaces in which many users can participate. Students freed from the need to be situated within the real environment can learn and receive feedback while interacting within recreated 3D environments such as museums, historical events, crime scenes, hospital wards, chemistry labs.

 Traditional Multimedia

•          Multimedia is not confined to modern technology as we think of computers today, but an old combination that traces back to the advent of human learning.

•          The use of visual symbols along with narrative forms that emerged at the advent of language symbols are an example of traditional media.

•          In a classroom, the teacher may have written a text on print base for learners to read, a chart, map or diagram printed on manila paper for learners to visualize; the teacher may also ask learners to dramatize an event to experience the reality.

Modern Media

•          Modern media are only a convenience of traditional media.

•          The computer is a multimedia tool that has successfully taken over almost all media combinations. A computer shows films, dramatises, simulates, draws, works out mathematical operations etc.

•          When the term is used with computer technology, multimedia refers to a variety of applications that combine media and that use CD-ROM, video, audio, DVD, and other media equipment.

•          When the term is used with computer technology, multimedia refers to a variety of applications that combine media and that use CD-ROM, video, audio, DVD, and other media equipment.

When the term is used with computer technology, multimedia refers to a variety of applications that combine media and that use CD-ROM, video, audio, DVD, and other media equipment.

Module 5

Media selection

This is the process that teachers use to identify the media mostly likely to support the classroom instruction based on their analysis of learners’ characteristics, lesson objectives and learning activities.

In teaching diverse classroom, there are two main principles which guide selection of media:-

•          The first is universal design for learning (multiple representation, engagement and expression) a concept that publishers and teachers can use in design of instructional materials and learning activities.

•          The second is accessibility, a concept supported by law to ensure the rights individuals with disabilities to be able to use instructional materials

Media selection under transmission approach

Transmission approach assumes knowledge as being out there to be acquired or transmitted, learners as passive receivers of information or empty vessels to be filled with knowledge, ideas, numbers, values and skills. The teacher spends most of the time talking, elaborating and engaging learners in activities. Methods are such as lecture, storytelling, guest speaker, etc

Factors to consider in media selection under transmission approach

A teacher’s voice itself is a medium (oral), so clarity of voice, pausing, and repeating important points are important + audio visual materials are preferable + realia and locally available materials which are familiar to the learners are best

Media selection under transmission approach serves the purpose of: helping the teacher to emphasize the points that he/she thinks they need more clarification + enabling the teacher to pause and change teaching styles from all time talking to showing the visual materials on the board + using the media as the way to help the learners who cannot hear well the teacher’s voice + awaking the learners who lose interest due to prolonged teachers’ talk

Media selection under transaction/interaction approach

Under this perspective, knowledge is said to be generated or consolidated or shared during transaction process. Methods are such as discussions, seminars, debates, buzz groups and other methods that emphasize sharing of information

Factors to consider in media selection under transaction approach:

A teacher has to provide materials which will engage learners in discussions and other tasks + media are usually introduced as the lesson commences + audio, visual, audio-visual materials such as globe, maps, games, video tapes, video disks and digital video disks are preferable + media which follow the principle of universal design for learning (multiple means of representation, expression and engagement)

Usefulness of media in transaction approach: a teacher’s lesson is guided by those media, since the media is displayed from the beginning and hence it will guide the lesson development + groups have to share understanding among themselves under the guidance of the teacher + enhances learners to achieve their tasks through cooperative and collaborative fashion + the media are well distributed or positioned in groups depending on the class size

Media selection under transformation approach

This approach changes the learner’s belief system and attitudes or view of reality from one form into another. Assumes that during the process of teaching, the learner and content interact in such a way that learner’s beliefs and attitudes are being transformed. Methods are such as role play, simulation games, field visits to relevant places, invitation of key speakers.

Factors to consider in media selection under transformation approach:

The use of realia or locally made materials, teacher to prepare or choose T/L media by utilizing the naturally available materials such as tree leaves, soil, drum, etc + learner’s characteristics. Teachers have to choose media which fit to the ages and mental capability of the learners of the learners during the T/L process + the media which offers multiple means of engagement, expression and representation + media which are participatory in the process of making and consider prior experiences of the learners

Usefulness of media in transformation approach

Learners require meaningful or permanent learning (changes in attitudes and beliefs) + promotes learner’s interest and motivation + promotes independent thinking and curiosity

Criteria (models) for media selection

Romiszowski, A.J (1989): classified the criterion of media selection into four main concerns which are: 1.  effective communication which can be related to content, objectives and learners. 2. Reasonable or affordable cost which can be related to objectives, market and availability. 3. Practical tool which can be related to availability, time and facilities. 4. Human factors which can be related to facilities, teachers and learners

Barnes, Mosgrove and Rassoli (1982) lists the following media selection criteria: 1. Define objectives. 2. Availability of the media in the target area. 3. Uncontrollable factors such s governmental restrictions. 4. The behavioural aspects of target customer-learner + 5. Appropriate media to affectively convey the message + 6. Considering the cost factors of candidate media

Tony Bate’s ACTIONS model (1995): access (how accessible is a particular technology for a learner)+ costs(what is the unit cost per student) +teaching and learning (what are the best technologies for supporting this teaching and learning) + interactivity and user friendliness (what kind of interaction does this kind of technology enable)+ organizational issues(what changes in organization need to be done) + Novelty (how new is this technology)+ speed (how quickly can course be adapted with this technology)

Coulter and sarkis (2005):1. Quality +time +flexibility+ coverage+ cost

ADDIE: analysis + design + development + implementation + evaluation

Improvisation- collection, preparation and use for teaching and learning materials from locally available materials on behalf of commercial equipments or products

Advantages of improvisation- it slashes the cost of apparatus/equipments and is a quite helpful in making school self reliant + it has instructional value as well as we also learn by doing + it helps develop the dignity of labour and also satisfies the urge of creative production + it helps develop the habit of cooperation and coordination + it provides training in thinking skills through the process of looking for low cost substitutes or alternatives

Steps in improvisation: making a careful study of the conventional apparatus or equipments + thinking of some low cost substitute that may be available in the local environment + collection of materials required for improvisation